H20 - Taxation, Subsidies, and Revenue: GeneralReturn

This discussion paper proposes significant changes in the taxation of personal incomes and property based on systemic approach to Czech tax system, which aim to make the tax system simpler and more efficient in a socially sensitive way and to contribute to the resolution of long-term unsustainability of Czech public finances.
The paper introduces the issue to the reader firstly by overall look at Czech tax system, mainly at size and structure of collected taxes. Subsequently it familiarizes the reader with opinions of experts on how a good tax system should look like, what are the main problems of Czech tax system and summarizes recent proposals to change it. The second and main part of the paper presents in detail the proposed significant changes comprising significant increase of property taxes, decrease in taxation of personal incomes while making it simpler and more progressive, increase of housing allowance, which would become the main targeted social allowance, and related changes in the allocation of taxes to public budgets. Last but not least are included also estimated effects of these changes on public budgets and net incomes of households.

Based on OECD Revenue Statistics data, the article analyses the impact of two external shocks (the great financial depression of 2008-2009 and covid-19 in 2020) on the size and structure of tax revenues for OECD countries. Using the descriptive statistics and cluster analysis, the authors have established that the tax systems of both developed and developing countries responded to the external shocks in 2008–2009 and 2020+ with a decline in the overall tax burden (tax to GDP ratios), due to a faster decline in nominal tax revenues than in nominal GDP. The decline was more pronounced in 2009 and within developing countries. During both shocks, the share of income taxes (incl. social security contributions) has dropped, while this decline was more intense in 2009. In 2009, the importance of consumption taxes has increased, and in 2020 it decreased. The clusters of countries in terms of the size and structure of taxes are basically the same throughout the period 2008–2020. However, it is not possible to unambiguously identify clusters of countries that would respond to both shocks in their tax policy and taxation system in the same way.

The article discusses the importance of the Svarc system and its impact on tax revenues in the Czech Republic. According to Czech case law, part of the income is legally taxed in the partial tax base on income from independent activity, although it should rather be income from dependent activity. This is a main feature of the Czech tax system, and it has impact on Czech public finance. Tax revenues of individuals in the Czech Republic are driven mainly by dependent activity, i.e., income from employment. For the analysis, a method was chosen that focuses on the share of self-employed persons without employees in the working age population, according to the economic branches of NACE. The aim of the article was to identify the economic sectors in which, according to Eurostat data, the Svarc system is being overused and subsequently, the lost personal income tax and social security and health insurance from employment were estimated. The total estimate of such tax gap is CZK 14.4 billion.

The paper describes the influence of a tax law on the technical reserves recorded by the Czech and Slovak insurance companies. Specifically using technical reserves to insurance payments respectively to liabilities ratio it verifies whether the rules covered by the respective tax law might have influence the values of the technical reserves created. The Czech and Slovak insurance companies were chosen due to their different tax regime for the whole analyzed period (2010 – 2018). Whereas the Slovakia linked the amount of tax deductible technical reserves to the Directive 2009/138/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009, the Czech tax law allowed to deduct from the corporate income tax base any value reasonably justifiable. The results of the statistical analysis indicate influence of the tax regime of the technical reserves deductibility as the Czech insurance companies were achieving significantly higher values of the technical reserves to insurance payment ratio in comparison to the Slovak insurance companies where the tax regime had been stricter.

Statutory tax rates are not considered a suitable measure of a level of taxation. For this reason, a new indicator - the effective tax rate - was introduced. The article provides an overview and critical assessment of methods for determination of the effective tax rate. In particular, the article covers the micro forward looking, micro backward looking and macro backward looking approaches. Different approaches to the effective tax rate determinations appearing in a number of studies are reviewed. To illustrate differences in the approaches, the article includes an analysis based on macro backward looking approach with several modifications. It includes the effective corporate tax computed as a ratio of total corporate tax revenue to GDP and a ratio of total corporate tax revenue to total tax revenue. Further as a ratio of taxation to profit before taxes. It is shown that there is no general method to determine the effective tax rate. A method must be chosen appropriately with respect to the intended purpose of an analysis

The paper deals with the possibility of estimating similarity between the tax systems of selected countries (Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia) based on the development of tax revenues and important macroeconomic indicators. The methodology is based on regression and correlation analysis, when possible similarities are subsequently discussed with the results of correlation analysis and the size of the estimated regression coefficients. Although the outcome in some cases does not preclude possible similarity between tax systems, only the evaluation of the development of regression analysis, so this conclusion is not evidential due to the small size of the data obtained.

The paper is based on general function of tax reforms. It evaluates VAT from the perspective of the taxpayer in the planned change of VAT rates in Czech Republic. The main aim is to analyze the impact of the changes on individual households deciles. The methodology is based on the database Czech Statistical Office. Then simulation analysis on family accounts is made. The data obtained are discussed in terms of tax equity. The result is that VAT has already regressive impact and the planned unification of the VAT rates increases regression.

This paper investigates the tax harmonization in the European Union in the context of the Economic Crisis. The aim is to analyze an evolution of taxes with the greatest harmonizing tendencies. Two of them are indirect taxes - VAT and excise tax, and one is direct tax - corporate income tax. In the paper, the main basis of the harmonization process and basic legal standards are summarized. The paper concludes that harmonization of these taxes can be divided into two areas. It is quite successful in the area of indirect taxes, the former turnover taxes were replaced by the value added taxes, and the EU member states have also found agreement about excise duties which should be used. On the other way the area of direct taxes is very sensitive and a lot of initiatives of the Commission were abolished due to different national interests. During the Economic Crisis a new need for tax harmonization has arisen, especially for further coordination of the chosen taxes.

The aim of the paper is to research the possibility of home state taxation system implementation as the unified system of SME taxation in the European Union and further to suggest the possible method of tax base allocation between the EU member states. The paper analyzes the possibility of home state taxation system introduction and call attention to the impacts on the tax revenues in EU member states. The research has revealed that there are nine European countries, in which even after the introduction of home state taxation system, the group taxation scheme would still be unavailable. At the end, the paper suggests to use allocation formula for the tax base allocation and suggest the concrete variables.

The paper deals with the problem of relation between financial reporting rules and tax rules. There are analyzed the arguments for the convergence of the rules, but also the arguments for the disconnection of the rules. Different attitudes towards the measurement of the relation between financial reporting rules and tax rules are presented as well. The measurement of the relation between the rules in the Czech Republic is done by the method developed by Lamb, Nobes and Roberts, for it enables inter country comparison. The results have shown, that Czech Republic seems to be in the middle between the Anglo-Saxon system, under which the disconnection predominates and between the continental system which is characterized by the very close connection between the financial reporting rules and tax rules.